Top 10 News Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Top 10 News - Essay Example This article effectively provides the details that it promised it would in the lead. This article starts off with a look at the Prince Charles and Diana wedding and then talks about the Prince William and Kate Middleton wedding that took place recently. It mainly talks about the government and the general population and attempts to look at how this wedding actually affects the average person, if at all. The marriages of other royals are also mentioned in passing. There is one picture with the article and that is of the massive crowds that gathered to watch the wedding. It seems an appropriate picture in this case as the article does discuss the people who watched the wedding and their attitudes towards the monarchy rather than give details of the wedding itself. This articles starts with a reaction from Chile’s president followed by a details of a major face in this event-the shift manager who tried to keep things organised underground when the miners were trapped. There is a brief description of the events that led to this rescue followed by the names of the men who were trapped underground. The article is effectively written. This article describes the destruction in Haiti as a result of the earthquake that occurred. It provides information about what other countries have said about their staff in the country and also the scale of the destruction. There are three pictures and the first is a schematic showing the epicentre of the earthquake. The second and third are satellite images of two cities affected by the earthquake. The first picture is appropriate for this article as are the other two. This article is very effectively written. The lead provides us with an indication as to the scale of the event by mentioning that this is the biggest earthquake and tsunami in Japan’s history. The article goes on to discuss the concerns over the nuclear plant, reports on Japan’s main city Tokyo and provides information of international

Best Day Essay Example for Free

Best Day Essay Have you ever felt the emotion when you are going to see your favorite band or singer alive in a concert. This happened to me when I went to Sofia last year to see one of my favorite singers Enrique Iglesias. It was fantastic experience that I will never forget. The day was near, it was ten days befor the concert, and every day I asked my father for permission and money. One day he finally said â€Å"yes†, and he gave me the money. He told me that it was the gift for my birthday. I was so happy and immediately called my friend to tell her about the news. The next day we bought our tickets and we were waiting for the big day.We couldn’t believe that we would be in the most waited concert on September 29th , we never thought that in few hours, we would sing all the song of our favorite singer. When we arrived,we sat in the chairs, and we were waiting for Enrique. The lights turned off and all the auditory screamed like they were crazy. The orchestra began to play one of my favorite songs. The best singer appeared in the scene. That moment was so awesome and exciting for me, and everyone was all of the songs. In conclusion, I will tell tha, the concert was a big experience for me and I was so happy. At the end, we bought some souvenirs from the concert, like a shirt, some posters and a cup. The concert finished at 12 p.m. and we came back to our town with an experience that I will never forget. I will remember this moment as if it had been yesterday.

Comparing Measure for Measure and The Merchant of Venice, As You Like I

Parallels between Measure for Measure and The Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, and Twelfth Night What is comedy?   Funk and Wagnalls New Encyclopedia says: "A comedy depicts the follies and absurdities of human beings."   Webster's Dictionary defines comedy as: "A drama or narrative with a happy ending."   Shakespeare's play, Measure for Measure, fits both of these descriptions.   Follies and absurdities are present in the play: Lucio slanders the Duke, not realizing that his crude remarks are being spoken to the Duke himself; Angelo abuses his power thinking that the Duke is not present to know; and Ragozine happens to die in prison the day a head is needed to substitute for Claudio's.   The play also ends on several merry notes, consistent with the definition of comedy.   For example, Angelo's life is spared and he is forgiven; Mariana is married to Angelo; the Duke punishes Lucio humorously with marriage; Barnardine is pardoned; and Claudio is saved.   The parallels between Measure for Measure and three other Shakespearean comedies, The Merchant of Venice, As Yo u Like It, and Twelfth Night, also help to classify Measure for Measure as a comedy.   In Measure for Measure, like in The Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, and Twelfth Night, an arbitrary law or obstacle is eventually overcome; a disguised character affects the outcome of the play; a clown adds humor to the plot; a female character bears a large responsibility for the final resolution; and forgiveness and reconciliation mark the conclusion of the action.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Some critics consider Measure for Measure a "dark" play because of the serious obstacles encountered by the characters.   However, doesn't The Merchant of Venice also have near-tragic hindrances that af... ... only does Measure for Measure fit the definition of comedy, it also parallels Shakespeare's other comedies.   Like The Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, and Twelfth Night, the plot of Measure for Measure overcomes an adversarial obstacle, possesses a disguised character who affects the denouement, touches the audience with the humor of a clown or ruffian, endures the influence of a powerful a female character, and ends with forgiveness and reconciliation.   The similarities between Measure for Measure and The Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, and Twelfth Night help to place Measure for Measure in the same category with Shakespeare's other comedies.   Furthermore, the "problems" many critics single out in Measure for Measure are also present in The Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, and Twelfth Night, and further help to classify Measure for Measure as a comedy.

A Child of Sorrow Essay

It is such a very wonderful love story that tickles your bones and tells you that it is a nice feeling to be in love. Though, its title suggests its tragic ending, but still I on my part like the simple yet elegant story crafted in this novel by Zoilo Galang. Considering the fact that this is the first Filipino novel written in English, it follows suit that it lacks sophistication. The characterization, plot and setting of the said novel are simple. However, behind this simplicity, it is still a good try and a nice start for the future of novels being the youngest literary genre in the Philippines. The story is very well sequenced. It refrains the use of flashbacks as possible in order to avoid baffling the minds of the readers. Thus, somewhere in the part of the novel, we could somehow surmise and predict the flow of events, which is very typical to a Filipino author. Each chapter has its own theme developed and united in one thought. With regards to characterization, Galang made it by having memorable characters as Rosa and Julio. They are very ordinary characters but their love story is unique. I could somehow identify myself with Julio. Like him, I am living in illusion with reading too many books. Sometimes I detached from reality as I try to imagine things which are very fiction in nature. The story of the novel revolves around love as its theme. Love is such a very powerful feeling that could not be prevented by anything else. But inasmuch as love is a feeling, it also demands sacrifice. True love is tested by trials that come along in a relationship. It may come in the form of a third part, rumors and etc. Our cherished lovers in the novel also encountered such things. It is also stressed that inspiration brings change. When we are inspired brought about by being in love, we could have the zest to do things better and could change for the best that we can be. Failures in life must not be considered curses. Failures are sometimes blessings in disguise. If we only have the proper attitude towards life, thus counting the trials that come along our way as another challenge for us to grow, then life is worth living. The novel teaches us a lot of things. It teaches us the reality in life that we fall in love even in an unexpected time. Love buds everywhere and no one is exempted to fall in love. As long as we live, it is inevitable for us to fall in love.

Fundamentals of Management Essay

1) One of Zappos’ key features is free returns on shoes that don’t fit. Answer: TRUE Explanation: An online shoe store needs to be allow customers to â€Å"try on† shoes. Zappos does this with free returns and no questions asked. Diff: 1 Page Ref: 29 Objective: 2.1 2) One element of Zappos’ success is that it has limited selection, focusing on quality rather than a great number of different brands and styles. Answer: FALSE Explanation: Zappos has an enormous selection. Selection is one of the advantages it has over conventional shoe stores. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 29 Objective: 2.1 3) One of Zappos’ goals is to deliver WOW to its customers. Answer: TRUE Explanation: Delivering WOW is one of Zappos’ ten corporate values. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 29 Objective: 2.1 4) A major cause of the shutdown of a BMW assembly plant in South Carolina in 2010 was a bank crisis in Iceland. Answer: FALSE Explanation: A volcanic eruption in Iceland was the cause of the shutdown, preventing deliveries to the plant. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 30 AACSB: Dynamics of the global economy Objective: 2.1 Learning Outcome: Identify the fundamental concepts and issues of international business and management 5) The external environment of an organization includes factors and forces that can affect how the organization operates. Answer: TRUE Explanation: The external environment includes any outside agent that can influence the performance of the organization. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 30 AACSB: Multicultural and diversity understanding Objective: 2.1 Learning Outcome: Describe the components of the management environment 6)  The components of an organization’s external environment include a technological component and a political component. Answer: TRUE Explanation: The technological component may include such things as new software, while the political component may include office holders who directly affect a company’s business. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 30 AACSB: Analytic skills Objective: 2.1 Learning Outcome: Describe the components of the management environment 7) The sociocultural component of the external environment of an organization includes trends and traditions, but not basic attitudes and values. Answer: FALSE Explanation: The sociocultural component of the external environment includes all beliefs and values as well as attitudes and behavioral patterns. Diff: 1 Page Ref: 30 Objective: 2.1 Learning Outcome: Describe the components of the management environment 8) The overall trend toward globalization is part of the political component of an organization’s external environment. Answer: FALSE Explanation: Globalization is part of the global component of an organization’s external environment. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 31 AACSB: Dynamics of the global economy Objective: 2.1 Learning Outcome: Identify the fundamental concepts and issues of international business and management 9) High interest rates have been identified as a major cause of the economic meltdown that began in 2008. Answer: FALSE Explanation: Low interest rates, rather than high interest rates, have been named as a cause of economic problems. Diff: 2 Page Ref: 31 AACSB: Dynamics of the global economy Objective: 2.1 Learning Outcome: Identify the fundamental concepts and issues of international business and management 10) Prior to the recession that began in 2008, many businesses became highly leveraged, which is another term for a company with a high debt-to-assets ratio. Answer: TRUE Explanation: With  cheap credit, companies tended to take on too much debt.

Florine Stettheimer, Avant-Garde Artist of the Jazz Age

Florine Stettheimer, Avant-Garde Artist of the Jazz Age Florine Stettheimer (August 19, 1871–May 11, 1944) was an American painter and poet whose brushy, colorful canvases depicted the social milieux of New York in the Jazz Age. During her lifetime, Stettheimer chose to keep her distance from the mainstream art world and only shared her work selectively. As a result, her legacy as a truly original American Folk-Modernist, while still modest, is now slowly building, decades after her death. Fast Facts: Florine Stettheimer Known For: Jazz Age artist with an avant-garde styleBorn: August 19, 1871 in Rochester, New YorkDied: May 11, 1944 in New York City, New YorkEducation: Art Students League of New YorkSelected Work: Cathedrals series, Family Portrait II, Asbury Park Early Life Florine Stettheimer was born in 1871 in Rochester, New York, the fourth of five children. Throughout her life, she had a close relationship with the two siblings closest to her in age- her older sister Carrie and her younger sister Ettie- as none of the sisters ever married. Both of Stettheimer’s parents were descendants of successful banking families. When her father Joseph left the family when the girls were children, they lived off their mothers, Rosetta Walter Stettheimer, sizable inheritance. In later life, Stettheimer’s independent wealth may have accounted for some of her reluctance to show her work publicly, as she was not dependent on the art market to support herself. This, in turn, may have affected the content of her work, as she was not forced to abide by the whims of cultural tastes and could more or less paint as she pleased. Florine Stettheimer, Spring Sale at Bendels (1921), oil on canvas, Philadelphia Museum of Art. Public Domain Personality and Persona Stettheimer spent her early years of schooling in Germany, but returned to New York City often to take classes at the Art Students League. She moved back to New York in 1914 before the start of World War I and took a studio near Bryant Park in the Beaux-Arts building. She became close friends with many of the movers and shakers in the art world at the time, including the father of Dada (and creator of R. Mutt’s Fountain), Marcel Duchamp, who taught French to the Stettheimer sisters. The company the Stettheimer sisters kept was highly creative. Many of the men and women who frequented Alwyn Court (the Stettheimer home on 58th Street and 7th Avenue) were artists and members of the avant-garde. Frequent visitors included Romaine Brooks, Marsden Hartley, Georgia O’Keefe, and Carl Van Vechten. Stettheimer’s politics and attitudes were distinctly liberal. She attended an early feminist conference in France when she was in her twenties, did not cringe at risquà © depictions of sexuality on stage, and was an ardent supporter of Al Smith, who favored a woman’s right to vote. She was also an outspoken supporter of Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal, making it the centerpiece of her famous Cathedrals of Wall Street (1939), now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. She collected George Washington memorabilia and called him the â€Å"only man I collect.† Despite the time she spent in Europe, Stettheimer’s love of her home country is clear in the scenes of jubilation she choose to represent under its flag. Work Stettheimer’s best known works are of social scenes or portraits interspersed with symbolic references to their subjects’ lives and milieux, often including some reference to her own identity as a painter. Florine Stettheimer, The Cathedrals of Broadway, 1929, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Public Domain / CC01.0   From a young age, the multi-sensory experience of attending the theater appealed to Stettheimer. Though her initial attempts at set design failed (she approached the dancer Vaslav Nijinsky with an idea of bringing the myth of Orpheus to the stage with her as set designer, only to be rejected), there is an undeniable theatricality to her canvases. Their visually-optimized but inaccurate perspective allows for the entire scene to be viewed from one point of view, and their elaborate framing devices give off the appearance of a proscenium or other elements of a theater or stage. Later in her life, Stettheimer did design the sets and costumes for Four Saints in Three Acts, an opera whose libretto was written by famed modernist Gertrude Stein. Art Career In 1916, Stettheimer was given a solo show at the well-known M. Knoedler Co. Gallery, but the show was not well received. It was the first and last solo show of her work in her lifetime. Stettheimer opted instead for throwing â€Å"birthday parties† for each new painting––essentially a party thrown in her home whose main event was the unveiling of a new work. The social occasion model of exhibiting was not a far cry from the salons for which the Stettheimer women were known during the interwar years. Stettheimer was known as a wit with a sharp tongue, uninhibited when it came to social critique. Her painting, as well as her poetry, are clear evidence of this assessment, such as the commentary on the art market which is the driving force of this poem: Art is Spelled with a Capital AAnd capital also backs itIgnorance also makes it swayThe chief thing is to make it payIn a quite dizzying wayHurrah–hurrah– Stettheimer was very deliberate about her image as an artist, often refusing to be photographed by the many significant photographers she counted among her friends (including Cecil Beaton) and instead opting to be represented by her painted self. Appearing in the straight cuts of clothing fashionable in the 1920s, the painted version of Florine wore red high heels and never seemed to age past forty, despite the fact that the artist died in her early 70s. While most often she would directly insert her image, palette in hand, into a scene, in Soirà ©e (c. 1917), she includes a nude self-portrait not widely exhibited (presumably because of its salacious content). Later Life and Death Florine Stettheimer died in 1944, two weeks before the Museum of Modern Art exhibited what she called her â€Å"masterpiece,† Family Portrait II (1939), a canvas which returned to her favorite subjects: her sisters, her mother, and her beloved New York City. Two years after her death, her great friend Marcel Duchamp helped organize a retrospective of her work at the same museum. Sources Bloemink, Barbara. Imagine The Fun Florine Stettheimer Would Have With Donald Trump: The Artist As Feminist, Democrat, And Chronicler Of Her Time.  Artnews, 2018, artnews.com/2017/07/06/imagine-the-fun-florine-stettheimer-would-have-with-donald-trump-the-artist-as-feminist-democrat-and-chronicler-of-her-time/. Brown, Stephen, and Georgiana Uhlyarik.  Florine Stettheimer: Painting Poetry. Yale University Press, 2017.Gotthardt, Alexxa. The Flamboyant Feminism Of Cult Artist Florine Stettheimer.  Artsy, 2018, https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-flamboyant-feminism-cult-artist-florine-stettheimer. Smith, Roberta. A Case For The Greatness Of Florine Stettheimer.  nytimes.com, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/18/arts/design/a-case-for-the-greatness-of-florine-stettheimer.html.

Oil and Economic Recession essays

Oil and Economic Recession essays Two months ago (Sep. 2000), the worlds economies faced a great problem. The oil price went enormously up and the Dollar followed the same tack. It was made very clear that almost all countries would have a serious problem due to oils importance. Oil provides fuel for heating, transport, and machinery, and is a basic input for petrochemicals and many household products ranging from plastic utensils to polyester clothing. From the beginning of this century until 1973 the use of oil increased steadily. Economic activity was organized on the assumption of cheap and abundant oil. In 1973-74 there was an abrupt change. The main oil-producing nations belong to OPEC(the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries). OPEC decided in 1973 to raise the price for which their oil was sold. OPEC thought that cutbacks in the quantity demanded would be small since most other nations were very dependent on oil and had few commodities available as potential substitutes for oil. Thus OPEC correctly anticipated that a substantial price increase would lead to only a small reduction in sales volume. It would be very profitable for OPEC members. Between 1973 and 1974 the price of oil tripled, from $2,90 to $9 per barrel. After a more gradual rise between 1974 and 1978 there was another sharp increase between 1978 and 1980, from $12 to $30 per barrel. The dramatic price increases of 1973-74 and 1978-80 have become known as the OPEC oil price shocks. In the early 1980s, however, OPECs resolve began to weaken. Although oil consumption increased steadily over most of the 1970s, the 1979-1980 rebound resulted in a drop in demand for oil in the industrial countries. The major reasons for the decline in consumption were the worldwide recession, the increase in crude-oil prices, the substitution of other fuels for oil, the effectiveness of national energy policies aimed at conservation, the changing structure of industry, and the decreasing ...

School English Essay

School English Essay School English Essay School English Essay: Choosing Custom Writing Service As a rule, students do not like writing school English essay, especially those, who were not born in English speaking country. This fact is simple to interpret, as while you are writing your school English essays, you have to care at least, about several things at one and the same time. The first one is the sense and content of your school English essay itself. As any other kind of essay, it should be interesting, creative, informative, and actual. The second is the grammar and lexis used in your school English essays. It is rather difficult to write in a language, which is not native for you. That is why school English essay is considered to be a rather complicated task. However, nowadays, you do not have to trouble yourself while trying to write school English essays. If you feel that school English essay is not your strong point, however, you are a hard working and caring about your grades student, do not fall into a risk and order your school English essay online. Before ordering your school English essay, choose only such a source which can be trusted. Of course, it is not simple to understand whether this or that custom writing site is a professional one until you try its service, but still there are several things you have to pay attention to. The first thing you can do while choosing the site where to buy your school English essay is to ask for the advise your group mates. Believe, the number of students who use different custom essay writing sites is just huge, that is why you are certain to find some necessary information. You can also search for such a site by yourself. While choosing one, do pay attention to the price of servicing. If it is going to be too cheap or even free of charge, you are running the risk to come across internet cheating. You see, to write a professional school English essay takes some particular times and some certain efforts. That is why if they are going to off er you school English essay for the miserable price, either they will provide you with the low quality essay full of mistakes and other pleasant surprises or they will sell you the essay which is already sold to the hundreds of people as well. Do not economize on your grade; it may influence your future. Better, use the service of custom writing sites which offer acceptable and moderate price for their servicing, as for example, our site.

Geography Investigation - In what stage of Butlers Tourist Area Life Essay

Geography Investigation - In what stage of Butlers Tourist Area Life Cycle Model is Sao Paulo - Essay Example have witnessed a massive tourist influx over the past two decades owing to the twin availability of Scenic beauty, world-class recreational facilities and good living conditions in all these places. However, besides all these regions, South America continues to be a lucrative destination for tourists and backpackers alike. Amongst the South American nations, Brazil, the largest country in Latin America has been successful in serving as a major tourist destination for travelers worldwide. From the traditional Samba dances of cities such as Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro on one hand to the unknown secrets of the thick rain forests of the Amazon on the other, Brazil offer an amazing choice for an amazing and breathtaking holiday. Promoting tourism has been running high on the on the agenda of the government of Brazil for many years, which views tourism and the revenue generated by the industry as a major contributor to the national GDP. The ministry of Tourism, which came into existence in 2003, highlights the growing acceptance and importance of the sector to Brazil’s economy. Since then, the number of promotional tourist events and fairs in Sao Paulo and Rio De Janeiro has almost doubled and the income (Jane Ladle, Insight Guides, Huw Hennessy, Brian Bell, 1999). The government has invested heavily in the development and overhaul of major infrastructure such as roads, airports, hotels and beaches. Many places considered symbols of world heritage have been protected and restored. In Sao Paulo alone, Tourism has been acknowledged to employ nearly 15% of the working population, which goes to underline the strategic importance of this sector within Sao Paulo’s economy (Gui Santana, 2001). However , serious questions have been posed by researchers as to whether Sao Paulo has passed its prime. An additional decline in the amount of tourist activity in countries across the Mediterranean and elsewhere have prompted many to voice the need of the hour for a study of all

Climate change and the role of Sustainable cites in mitigation and Essay

Climate change and the role of Sustainable cites in mitigation and adaptation - Essay Example It would be elicited that how these cities respond to the issues of mitigation and climatic changes. Further the paper will elaborate the features of climate change initiative launched by UN-Habitat. Factors which bring together the local and national government and the challenges faced by different governments would be described. The issues related to the control of climate changes and mitigation in London is controlled by its mayor and he governs by presenting policies and strategies that could help to resolve these problematic issues. In October 2011, the mayor of London is accordance with the GLA Group and assembly members presented the strategy to cover up the issue of mitigation to climate change and energy factors. The basic factor which is focused is the â€Å"LOW CARBON FUTURE† (London.Gov.Uk 2011). The climate change act was adopted by the government in 2008 and it majorly focused on the reduction of gas emission from the U.K house by 80% till 2050. This goal is not easy to obtain and its achievement requires huge radical changes in the life styles of people, infrastructure of state and the services that are availed. To make the achievement of this goal possible and to initiate the actions the government of London involved City London Corporation to develop a structure on how the future with low carbon should be (City of London 2008). The structure which was developed is as follow: A low carbon environment is where people use the transport which is environment friendly such as more focus on cycling and walking. Plus the public transport would be made efficient and enjoyable to use. The development of building should be done in such a way which serves as energy efficient tools with the supporting features such as the incorporating of renewable energy generation systems and systems for rain water harvesting as the essential features of the business. The city of London cooperation fully supported the aim of reducing

Outline and assess Foucault's critique of modernity Essay

Outline and assess Foucault's critique of modernity - Essay Example It shall present Foucault’s ideas according to post-modernism and how it conflicts with the ideas of modernity. Then it shall seek to provide an answer to the questions raised in this introduction. A conclusion to this paper shall provide a summary and a clear answer to the issues raised. Foucault critiques of modernity are based on the anti-Enlightenment principles which do not agree with the act of matching reason with emancipation and progress. Instead, Foucault argues that the links between modern realms of information has led to different types of domination (Kellner, 1991: 65). His reports have added details to this domination through psychiatry, medicine, and criminology. His aim was to critique the trends in the current world order which makes issues from the more contemporary forms of prudence which appear to be natural, but are actually oppressive forms of domination. From his goals, it can be deduced that Foucault is a â€Å"complex and eclectic thinker who draws f rom multiple sources and problematic while aligning himself with no single one† (Kellner, 1991: 41). Foucault’s literature and philosophy is a critique of modernity and he differentiates between the classical and the modern eras of the post-Renaissance period (Kellner, 1991: 39). â€Å"He sees the classical era as inaugurating a powerful mode of domination over human beings that culminates in the modern era† (Kellner, 1991: 41). He also supports Nietzsche when the latter does not give much credit to the Enlightenment ideals in historical progress. In effect, Foucault believes that humans do not go through a series of conflicts to eventually arrive at an implied agreement of the rule of law; instead, he believes that humans use the series of violent acts under certain rules and then they progress from one act of domination to another (Foucault, 1979: 25). Enlightenment was deemed by Foucault as a means of increasing political power and of distributing it in the so cial field – eventually covering different aspects of daily life. Foucault, in effect, supports a position against modernity and this is a major characterization of his work (Grumley, Hegel, and Foucault, 1989: 11). The postmodern ideal does not support the idea of equating reason and freedom with each other; and it also does not support the attempts at making issues out of the different modern and oppressive elements of rationality. Foucault sees modern rationality and subjectivity therefore as a source of domination (Grumley, Hegel, and Foucault, 1989: p. 171). He also points out that knowledge and truth are tools for power and domination. Critique of Foucault’s perspectives One of the critiques of Foucault’s perspective of modernity is the fact that he rejected the advantages which were gained through modernity, including that of medicine (Kellner, 1991: 65). Other philosophers like Habermas believed that science and the technologies arising from it would not create any issues for as long as these technologies are managed according to proper rules (Powell and Moody, 2003). In contrast, Foucault completely discounted the benefits and progressive gains from modernity and science. Foucault believed that modernity is entirely disciplinary, and this generalization is a difficult one to support (Koopman, 2010: 3). His analysis has not exactly focused on what would end up being right in the end;

Video team paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Video team paper - Essay Example Questions on who was to be responsible for certain things arose due to need of clarity and commitment (Singh 23). Norming During this stage, members worked cohesively, with active acknowledgement of each other. The interpersonal relationships grew positively with members solving team issues together. Each member asked questions on the tasks, while at the same time, preconceived notions about each other changed due to the facts that were presented. Members shared information with each other freely and tasks concerning the race were explored without any individualism (Singh 24). Perfoming The team managed to evolve itself towards the fourth stage. Members were able to work independently while at the same time, they were able to work as a unit. Production was at the peak with individual tasks being handled effectively. Interdependence in terms of personal relations was observed. Group identity was complete, the morale and loyalty was high and also intense. Problems were solved due to th e high productivity rate (Singh 24). Adjourning During this stage, the tasks were concluded with task termination and the end of relationships. During this time, members recognized each other’s participation and achievement towards the success of the task (Singh 24). Big Five Personality traits Members of the team were observed to show their big five personality traits. Some members who were very curious, creative and ready to embrace new ideas showed Openness. Some members were aware of their feelings and their beliefs were unconventional. Team members who were organized punctual, achievement oriented and systematic showed conscientiousness. These team members were always dependable as they showed a distinct preference when it came to planning ahead of their schedule. A member who was talkative, outgoing, and social showed extraversion. The member showed constantly positive emotions full of energy and vigor. Agreeableness was quite common with some team members who were very tolerant, sensitive, trusting and warm. These members wanted to get along with others and they showed high levels of friendliness, and compromises for the team. Neuroticism was clear with a member who showed anxious and irritability and moody behaviors (Singh 37). Conclusion Working as a team was quite enjoyable and eye opening. There are several lessons that were gained from the experience. Unity was key to the success of the team. When members of the team agreed on an issue without any problem, the task ahead was successful however, whenever there were conflicts, a lot of time was wasted and this led to little achievement. Through teamwork, it was possible to learn more about others. Tolerance was a great lesson, which was achieved from this exercise. Team members had different personalities and each one had to tolerate other members to make sure that the tasks were a success. Members who were a nuisance had to be asked to cooperate to realize the task ahead. Challenges due to le adership and task allocation were common. Some members felt that the tasks that they were given were too much or too little. However, appointing one person as a leader helped to create authority over issues. Due to time factor, the team leader consulted with members to avoid any conflicts before allocation of tasks. Members were also asked to be open and frank when it came to deciding

Communication and Conflict Chapter 7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Communication and Conflict Chapter 7 - Essay Example (The case mentioned Enrique believing that â€Å"he and Monica had a clear[er] picture of one another.†) These are the perceived incompatible goals. It is natural that in courtships, couples tend to put their best foot forward, to make the other feel special, and to show the other that his or her desires are paramount to her or him, which however is abandoned when one enters into marriage because pretensions are shed (Ziglar, 2004). The conflict appears to have reached a productive phase when Monica offered her explanation that what she meant about â€Å"forget about the job† was only for a short enough time to enjoy a night out, not to forget about it entirely; however, it re-entered a destructive phase when she appeared to accuse Enrique of not listening to her. On the other hand, Enrique tried to enter the constructive phase when he began to apologize to Monica, but vacillated towards the destructive phase again when he took issue with her comment to listen to her as an accusation, and stormed out to a friend’s house. IV Power Power is not openly discussed, but it is an issue apparently from Enrique’s side. ... The power currency Monica makes use of appears to be her feigned interest in Enrique’s job, and Enrique’s power currency is his attempt at apology and the physical contact he initiated, possibly conveying his use of affection as bargaining chip. Both Monica and Enrique felt that their spouse was trying to exert his /her power over her/him. Actually, it was more likely that they felt threatened when no threat was actually meant. Enrique felt he should exert his power as the breadwinner, and Monica felt she might exert her influence over him by cajoling and acting sweet. She over-interprets his actions as being akin to her parents’ actions; he over-interprets her words (â€Å"forget the job† and â€Å"why don’t you listen to me?†) as a challenge to his power and an accusation that he is inadequate (â€Å"I wish I had some pull†; â€Å"Doesn’t she see how much I’m trying, how hard I’m working?†). Both parties p erceived each other’s style as manipulative (Enrique of Monica) and unsympathetic (Monica of Enrique). V. Style While individuals use their own distinctive styles in a conflict, the conflict also takes on a style of its own (Chapter 7:223). At first, Monica was sweet and playful showing support and encouragement (â€Å"you’re up for a promotion, right?† while Enrique showed nonchalance and seriousness. After the conflict began, Monica protested innocence (â€Å"I didn’t say you should forget it, Enrique. I said let’s do something else for awhile†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ) and then hurt (getting up to silently do the dishes, or saying â€Å"I wish you would listen to what I’m saying.†), while Jack shows anger (â€Å"Forget about the job! How am I supposed to do that?†) and then conciliation (â€Å"I’ll come back later to pick you up for pizza). Later both revert to

Film Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Film Analysis - Essay Example that men have dominated in the society, thus leaving women to struggle on their own poverty.Multiracial aspect is also evident and this brings the problem of dominance of men who are in power. Cultural analytical frameworks employed really undervalue womanspreference such that inequality practices are facilitated. In this film, the aspect of hustling backwards is evident from the manner in which the characters concerned are struggling to make ends meet. This is as a result of the low wages that they earn as they try to uplift their families from poverty. In some instances, single mothershad found it hard to raise their children alone after an experience of a painful divorce, example, Mary Venittelli who was divorced by her husband.Women have limited access to government benefits such as the medical benefits and reliable salaries from their jobs. The women in the film experience hardships on matters related with medication as they struggle to pay for such services. These women have proven tobe very hardworking,to extend their work for more than one job and yet they cannot earn a wage that can be sufficient to uplift their families from poverty level. Barbara Brooks is featured in the film as a presentation of women who are facing a force of income inequality asit escalates to the social fabric of the country.The film highlights how the rich people continue to be richer and the poor becomes poorer as days go by (Weisberg, 2006). The women have found housing cost to be very high such that they cannot pay it comfortably. For instance, one of the women works as a maid with a house cleaning service,a waitress, a hotel housekeeper, a nursing home maid, and as a Wal-Mart associate, yet she cannot make enough money to cater to her needs. The film talks of the issue of rent that has become a challenge for many women evident through Jean Reynolds a 55year old who paid hospital bills but lacked finances to pay for rent only to be evicted from the house.The force of income

Communication and Conflict Chapter 7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Communication and Conflict Chapter 7 - Essay Example (The case mentioned Enrique believing that â€Å"he and Monica had a clear[er] picture of one another.†) These are the perceived incompatible goals. It is natural that in courtships, couples tend to put their best foot forward, to make the other feel special, and to show the other that his or her desires are paramount to her or him, which however is abandoned when one enters into marriage because pretensions are shed (Ziglar, 2004). The conflict appears to have reached a productive phase when Monica offered her explanation that what she meant about â€Å"forget about the job† was only for a short enough time to enjoy a night out, not to forget about it entirely; however, it re-entered a destructive phase when she appeared to accuse Enrique of not listening to her. On the other hand, Enrique tried to enter the constructive phase when he began to apologize to Monica, but vacillated towards the destructive phase again when he took issue with her comment to listen to her as an accusation, and stormed out to a friend’s house. IV Power Power is not openly discussed, but it is an issue apparently from Enrique’s side. ... The power currency Monica makes use of appears to be her feigned interest in Enrique’s job, and Enrique’s power currency is his attempt at apology and the physical contact he initiated, possibly conveying his use of affection as bargaining chip. Both Monica and Enrique felt that their spouse was trying to exert his /her power over her/him. Actually, it was more likely that they felt threatened when no threat was actually meant. Enrique felt he should exert his power as the breadwinner, and Monica felt she might exert her influence over him by cajoling and acting sweet. She over-interprets his actions as being akin to her parents’ actions; he over-interprets her words (â€Å"forget the job† and â€Å"why don’t you listen to me?†) as a challenge to his power and an accusation that he is inadequate (â€Å"I wish I had some pull†; â€Å"Doesn’t she see how much I’m trying, how hard I’m working?†). Both parties p erceived each other’s style as manipulative (Enrique of Monica) and unsympathetic (Monica of Enrique). V. Style While individuals use their own distinctive styles in a conflict, the conflict also takes on a style of its own (Chapter 7:223). At first, Monica was sweet and playful showing support and encouragement (â€Å"you’re up for a promotion, right?† while Enrique showed nonchalance and seriousness. After the conflict began, Monica protested innocence (â€Å"I didn’t say you should forget it, Enrique. I said let’s do something else for awhile†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ) and then hurt (getting up to silently do the dishes, or saying â€Å"I wish you would listen to what I’m saying.†), while Jack shows anger (â€Å"Forget about the job! How am I supposed to do that?†) and then conciliation (â€Å"I’ll come back later to pick you up for pizza). Later both revert to

Writer's choice Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Writer's choice - Assignment Example organize their business finances in one central place and still access them from any location using the internet because all their accounting data is automatically backed up. QuickBooks also gives small businesses the opportunity to save a lot of time that would have otherwise been used on dealing with figures, customer details, invoices, and reports. This is because QuickBooks is simpler, faster, and more accurate than spreadsheets or papers since accounting becomes automated and calculations are done by the software. This makes it less likely to make mistakes that would have otherwise been many if using paper or spreadsheets (INTUIT 1). QuickBooks ensures that all accounting details such as customer details, supplier details, and other financials are accessible in one place, can be accessed online, are searchable, and well organized. Small businesses that use QuickBooks do not have to worry about everyday accounting tasks because the software automatically takes care of them. For example, reports, invoices, and quotes can be automatically generated by the software, giving small business owners the chance to have an overview of their financial status just at a glance. Also, sales and expenses can easily be tracked using QuickBooks by simply entering the details of these transactions as they happen (INTUIT

Religious Artifact Analysis Essay Example for Free

Religious Artifact Analysis Essay The artifact that we intend to examine is the hit song â€Å"King Without a Crown† by the reggae music artist, Matisyahu. This music artist interests us because he is a popular performer who we have listened to voluntarily, with the particular song â€Å"King Without a Crown† ranking in the top 40 songs in America at one point in his career. Additionally, choosing a Matisyahu song is of interest to us as students at the University of Maryland because of Matisyahu’s live performance at UMD last year. Music is a particular form of rhetoric for artists to communicate ideas and inspire their listeners to adopt or understand belief systems. In the case of Matisyahu, the artist sings about his relationship to God and his religion, Judaism while making various references to religious and cultural aspects of his religion. As an Orthodox Jew, Matisyahu provides his audience with music specifically tied to religious belief. However, Matisyahu’s music may be universally enjoyed by people of any religion, as demonstrated by his various appearances on MTV during the time that his single, â€Å"King Without a Crown†, was popularly played on the radio and bought on iTunes. Matisyahu is known for being a Jewish figure in the music industry who is able to incorporate his religious passion to musical talent in a quite unique manner, through the production of reggae songs. Although music is a central part of the Jewish religion, especially in the practice of Orthodox Judaism, reggae music sung in English is an unconventional means of musical expression compared to other types of Jewish music, which include klezmer or traditional singing of psalms in Hebrew. At first glance, we noticed the symbols that Matisyahu uses in his song to represent different experiences in life. For example, Matisyahu incorporates a juxtaposition of darkness and light to demonstrate emotions and situations that are both positive (light) and negative (dark). Additionally, the artist uses much religious jargon, referring to God by the different names that Jewish people use to address a higher being. There is also an element of religion and/or God as a type of source that may protect and help people if they reach out and ask for such assistance, which is a fundamental Jewish belief. Matisyahu alludes to ideas of prayer, belief, and the Messiah, bringing important Jewish concepts to his song in an inspirational way of expressing his love for God. In studying this artifact, we will look at the lyrics of the song, â€Å"King Without a Crown† primarily to analyze the language that Matisyahu uses to communicate his  ideas. Additionally, we will draw upon the images used in this particular song’s music video to complement the lyrics that we study. In order to have a complete understanding of our text, we will research the biography of Matisyahu, including a focus on recent events, such as the scandal that occurred within the religious Jewish community when he shaved off his beard in the fall. Finally, to understand all of the Jewish references that Matisyahu makes in his song, we will research specific Jewish concepts, beliefs, and approaches to religious topics, such as the waiting for the Messiah to come from a Jewish lens. Studying a Matisyahu song is worthwhile because this particular artist is one of the most visible and popular Jewish representatives and role models in the secular world of music production. It is important to note that Jewish people do not exclusively enjoy Matisyahu music. Rather, his songs have been popular throughout America, especially among reggae fans. Especially as Jews are a minority religion in nearly all countries in the world, Matisyahu is a positive representation of Judaism and the Jewish people to the world, working to deconstruct religious stereotypes and serve as an example for devout people of all religions to embrace both their passions and their religious beliefs. Descriptive Analysis Purpose- Its about the power of trusting G-d in everyday life. also from a Jewish standpoint, it refers to the wait for a Messiah that will come; communicating his dedication to g-d. He is trying to convince his audience to follow that lifestyle Audience- His fans; mostly Jewish listeners now that he is not as famous anymore Controversial- Religious, some people do not share the same beliefs, minority religion, he is Orthodox and was affiliated with Chabbad at the time. He speaks about G-d and there are people who do not believe in G-d. Rhetor’s (Matisyahu) Purpose: â€Å"King Without a Crown† Following listening to Matisyahu’s â€Å"King Without a Crown† and reading its lyrics it seems as though he is referring to someone, use as a model representative of people in general that his targeted audience can relate to, who is lost spiritually and more specifically neglecting/ignoring the Torah. His identity with Chasidism is evident from even first glance at his  everyday attire consisting of a dark hat, matching long dark suit and coupled with the Chasidism orthodox braided hair hanging down from either temple and long beard. When analyzing Matisyahu’s lyrics and his passionate performance of â€Å"King Without a Crown,† it is feasible to argue his ultimate purpose from a rhetorical standpoint is to advocate a more Chasidic expression of faith and encouraging more attention and adherence toward prayer and the Torah. By calling his targeted audience (his fans) to reflect upon their daily lifestyle in contrast with the teachings of the Torah, he brings our attention toward our personal daily conduct and instills his audience members with feelings of personal accountability for each of our actions and the lives we choose to live. Ultimately the song, â€Å"King Without a Crown† is aimed at the nature of altering people’s perception of living a faith-bound righteous life in the eyes of G_d and calls for change in social action, more specifically, our everyday lifestyles and behaviors so that it emulates the Torah’s teachings. s exemplified by his lyrics such as: You’re all that I have and you’re all that I need Each and every day I pray to get to know your peace Wanna be close to you, yes I’m so hungry You’re like water for my soul when it gets thirsty If you’re drowning in the waters and you can’t stay afloat Ask Hasheem for mercy {and} he’ll throw you a rope Encouragement to trust and turn to G_d, not only when we desire something or are in need, but ydaily and it should be reflected by our actions. asking for G_d to help you do so. Apparently Matisyahu was a heavy drug user earlier in his life, and the video and song are obviously an autobiographical depiction of someone who overcame their demons. I have heard a lot of Christians say they like his music. I agree that his music is good†¦ but if someone is looking to Matisyahu as a prophet proclaiming God’s Word, I’m afraid he is very far from it. The title of the song is â€Å"King Without a Crown.† Such a title may sound familiar to Christians. Jesus is often described in such a way. However, this is not at all what Matisyahu is referring to in his song. He continues: If you’re drowning in the waters and you can’t stay afloat Ask Hasheem for mercy {and} he’ll throw you a rope (You’re) lookin’ for help from God; you say he couldn’t be found Searching up to the sky and looking beneath the ground Like a King without his Crown You keep fallin’ down You really want to live but can’t get rid of your frown You(‘re) try(in’) to reach unto the heights and wound bound down on the ground Matisyahu’s King without his Crown is not Christ, it is himself. The chorus of the song reveals more: What’s this feeling? My love will rip a hole in the ceiling (I give/Givin’} myself to you {now} from the essence of my being and I sing to my God, songs of love and healing †¦..I want Moshiach now so it’s time we start revealing Here he depicts the afflicting emotional torment of a spiritually lost and broken soul , and finally comes to recognition that he is powerless without G_d. He’s at the lowest breaking point in his life and surrenders his will to seeking out Moshiach for hope of healing. Matisyahu uses this experience to exemplify the saving strength and power of loving G_d, reinforcing once again, the significance of faith in our lives. Slavery is also a major theme of Matisyahu’s music, and is emphasized in the live version of â€Å"King Without a Crown.† Matisyahu sings of the slavery in which human beings sometimes bring upon themselves through materialism and hubris: â€Å"Youre a slave to yourself and you dont even know/You want to live the fast life but your brain moves slow/If youre trying to stay high then youre bound to stay low/You want G-d but you cant deflate your ego/If youre already there then theres nowhere to go/If youre cups already full then it’s bound to overflow.† â€Å"King Without a Crown† is †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Its widespread popularity is illustrated by the fact â€Å"song has been the band’s biggest commercial success, breaking into the Modern Rock Top 10 and peaking at #7 (citation needed).† When critically analyzing the rhetor’s (Matisyahu’s) purpose and underling significance of his song â€Å"King Without a Crown,† from a theoretical/conceptual perspective; 3 primary inferences can be made. 1.) Observe/abide by the Torah 2.) G_d is all you need 3.) Only lust for salvation; avoid materialism Conclusion Statement: Consider the rhetor’s purpose: 1.) What is the nature – call to action, altering perception, maintain social action? 2.) What was the cost the audience was faced with in terms of the rhetor’s appeals? Reevaluate their faith and lifestyles from a critical standpoint and evaluate the impact faith has to the contribution of our beliefs and actions and recognize what changes must be made for us to fulfill a life in accordance with the teachings of the Torah and walk a path that will lead to heaven and fill the with void/ provide direction in our livees felt by each of us exemplified by â€Å"a King Without a Crown† or in other words without a spiritual beacon to guide/ inspire leadership. The cost at critically in-depth analysis of our life is the resulting uneasines/weariness/ relucantce/ dislike/ unfavorable/ flaws/causes uncomfotableness associated with identifying and accepting our flaws.

The clinical efficacy of salvia officinalis

The clinical efficacy of salvia officinalis An evaluation of the clinical efficacy of Salvia officinalis, Salvia lavandulaefolia and Melissa officinalis for the prophylaxis, management and amelioration of cognitive dysfunction: with particular reference to Alzheimers disease and non-Alzheimer-type senile dementias. 1. Introduction Dementia is a collection of symptoms caused by a chronic, global deterioration of cognitive function. It can occur at any age but is most prevalent in the elderly and increases with age (Beers et al. 2006: 1811). Around 5% of people over 65, 25% over 80 and 45% over 85 have some form of dementia (Knapp et al. 2007: 10; Collins 1997: 185). The population is aging and whereas today there is an estimated 700,000 people in the UK suffering from dementia, this number is set to increase to more than a million by 2025. The huge impact dementia has on society, devastating families and costing around  £17-18 million annually cannot be overstated (Knapp et al. 11). Early identification and safe, effective, intervention is therefore important. Dementia may be classified as Alzheimers or non-Alzheimer-types (Beers et al. 2006: 1811). The most common dementia is Alzheimers disease (AD) (Grossman et al. 2006: 985), affecting around 20 million people worldwide (Akhondzadeh et al. 2003: 53) and accounting for around 62% of dementias (Knapp et al. 2007: 11). Non-Alzheimer-type dementias typically affecting those over 60 include vascular dementia (27%), Lewy body dementia and fronto-temporal dementia (Knapp et al. 29). Cognitive disorders are treated allopathically with drugs that have yet to show real benefits and have a number of side-effects and contraindications. The need for safer, more effective treatments has led to increasing interest in the use of herbs for their management (Akhondzadeh and Abbasi 2006: 117). A variety of herbs, for example Salvia officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Mellissa officinalis, Ginkgo biloba (Heinrich et al 2004: 234), Withania somnifera (Howes et al. 2003: 12), Centella asiatica (Chevallier 1996: 78) and Panax ginseng (Mantle et al. 2000: 207) have long-standing traditional use as memory-enhancing herbs. Consequently a number of clinical studies have been conducted to assess the efficacy of some of these herbs, most notably Ginkgo biloba, Salvia spp. and Mellissa officinalis, in the treatment of cognitive disorders. Of these, only clinical trials of Gingko biloba have been extensively reviewed (Birks and Grimley Evans 2002; Ernst et al. 1999; Oken et al. 1998). This present review aims to fill this gap by providing up-to-date information on whether clinical studies of Salvia spp. and Mellissa officinalis support their traditional use as cognition enhancers. To inform herbal practice it will evaluate clinical studies to assess whether the results have determined safe, effective herbal strategies and prescription for prophylaxis, management and amelioration of cognitive decline. 2. The literature review 2.1. Background: clinical presentation and pathology Although much scientific progress has been made since 1907 when Alois Alzheimer first described a case of dementia with â€Å"peculiar patches† disseminated throughout the cerebral cortex (Collins 1997: 185), there is still much to learn about the aetiology and pathogenesis of Alzheimers disease and other dementias (Knapp et al. 2007: 11). The onset of dementia is insidious, often beginning as mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and progressing to severe dementia over time (Loveman et al. 2006: 4). In the early stages, episodes of mild forgetfulness or misplacing possessions are often attributed to normal aging. Patients commonly suffer from anomic aplasia and agnosia but retain language comprehension (Collins 1997: 186). Dementia becomes more apparent when sufferers are unable to learn new information, to register the content of a conversation, or to recall recent events or the names of family members. Unlike those with benign forgetfulness, dementia patients are unaware of their amnesia. Frequently, there are mood changes, depression and other psychologic disturbances. Language comprehension fails (aphasia) and eventually patients may simply repeat what they hear or be unable to speak at all. Visuospacial deficits usually occur at a late stage (Collins 1997: 186). Those affected have difficulty in copy drawing simple obj ects. Differential diagnosis between MCI subtypes of various and complex aetiologies is challenging (Kidd 1999: 145). As some MCI subtypes are reversible (Levey et al. 2006: 992) prophylaxis for dementia could potentially encompass a range of varied or unknown aetiologies and risk factors. Knowledge of these and an awareness of differing clinical presentations are therefore important (Levey et al: 991). Additionally, an understanding of current orthodox treatment strategies and key neurochemical impairments in dementia can inform herbal practice of the most likely therapeutic actions of herbs. 2.1.1. Alzheimers disease As clinical studies have indicated that mild to moderate Alzheimers disease (AD) responds better to allopathic drugs than severe AD (Levey et al: 2006: 993), to prevent transition of MCI to AD early diagnosis is important. Evidence suggests that MCI associated with memory loss most commonly leads to AD (Levey et al. 991) and results of a clinicopathologic study of 80 subjects with MCI through to autopsy suggest that depression is one of the first features of AD (Galvin et al. 2005: 763). Formation of diffuse neuritic senile plaques in the brain is characteristic of AD but as these can only be determined from biopsy (Collins 1997: 186) probable diagnosis is made by clinical neuropsychological testing (Grossman et al. 2006: 986) such as the Mini Mental state Examination (MMSE) (Alzheimers Society 2002: 436), while magnetic resonance imaging can corroborate diagnosis by identifying areas of temporal neuronal loss (Vandenberghe and Tournay 2004: 347). Progression of AD is unremitting for around 5-10 years until death ensues. In the final stages sufferers may develop apraxia, with difficulty in performing familiar tasks. A common cause of death is pneumonia when patients eventual difficulty with eating results in aspiration pneumonia (Collins 1997: 186). The loss of faculties has been ascribed to both structural and neurochemical abnormalities (Perry et al. 1996: 1063). Senile plaques in the brains of AD patients contain amyloid and tau protein (microtubule associated protein) (Collins 1997: 188). Since isolation of b-amyloid peptide from cerebral vessels in AD patients (Wong et al. 1984: 8729), the accepted hypothesis for the pathogenesis of AD has been the ‘amyloid hypothesis, which proposes that AD is due to excessive formation of extracellular b-amyloid (Ab?) from amyloid precursor protein (APP), a membrane protein in neurons (Grossman et al. 2006: 986). It is thought that Ab molecules initiate a toxic cascade long before plaque forms by causing an inflammatory reaction, disrupting synaptic function and causing neurons to degenerate (Grossman et al. 986) with a loss of cholinergic fibres in the basal forebrain. In vitro results suggest that Ab enters mitochondria and induces free radical damage (Reddy 2006: 9). Intracellular neurofibrillary tangles are believed to be formed by abnormal phosphorylation of tau proteins (Tanzi and Bertram 200 5: 545), particularly in the hippocampus and neocortex, areas of the brain involved in memory (Mantle et al. 2000: 202). To date, thirteen genes have been implicated in AD (Bertram et al. 2007: 17). Of sporadic late onset Alzheimers up to 40% of cases may be due to a faulty gene on chromosome 21, ApoE4, an isoform of the ApoE gene that encodes for apolipoprotein, an astrocytic protein that may play a role in the reparative process in the brain. ApoE4s pathogenetic mechanism may be to enhance amyloid deposits within tissue by accelerating cleavage of b-peptide (Collins 1997: 189). Possession of a gene implicated in AD does not necessarily result in its development, the likelihood of which is further complicated by the potential role of environmental factors such as viruses and toxins in combination with genetic factors (Bird 2005: 864). 2.1.2. Vascular dementia Vascular dementia (VaD) is any type of dementia caused by cerebral blood vessel disease (Micieli 2006: S37). Onset of VaD is usually abrupt. Imaging may reveal areas of multiple infarcts (Collins 1997: 191) but their presence does not necessarily imply dementia (Grossman 2006: 987). According to Looi and Sachdev (1999) it is not possible to differentiate between AD and VaD with neuropsychological testing. Speech and language difficulties associated with vascular dementia may be mild or there may be a more pronounced aphasia as in multi-infarct VaD (Collins 1997: 191). 2.1.3. Frontal lobe dementia Frontal lobe dementia or Picks disease is uncommon and is characterised by neuronal loss and gliosis. Rarely, there are fibrillary inclusion bodies in the neurons. Presentation of frontal lobe dementia differs from AD in that the first symptoms are a change in personality rather than memory loss (Collins 1997: 193). 2.1.4. Lewy body dementias Dementia with Lewy bodies may differ to AD in its presentation in that patients suffer from marked visual hallucinations. Additionally, cognition tends to fluctuate between normality and confusion. Parkinsonian features such as shuffling gait, tremor, bradykinesia and rigidity are prevalent. Sleep behaviour disorder, such as acting out attacking themes, may appear years before other signs of the disease (Grossman et al. 2006: 989). 2.2. Risk factors Factors believed to pose a risk for developing dementia include cardiovascular disease, being female, a family history of dementia, Downs syndrome, older age, head trauma, diabetes and lower educational standards (Collins 1997: 186, 188; Lebson et al. 1997: 301). 2.2.1. Cardiovascular disease: Patients may have more than one type of dementia concurrently (Beers et al. 2006: 1811). This is compounded by results of a number of epidemiological studies suggesting that cardiovascular disease increases the risk of developing AD (Stampfer 2006: 12). Using transcranial Doppler ultrasonography Sun et al. (2007: 152) demonstrated diminished cerebral blood flow velocities in MCI patients who also carried the ApoeE4 allele. Risk factors for VaD are believed to include artherogenic factors such as hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, diabetes, and cigarette smoking (Micieli 2006: S38). Conversely, there are indications from clinical trials that nicotine has a protective effect for AD (Breteler et al. 1992: 71). Results of a randomised, double-blind, multicentred trial in which subjects with hypertension were treated with antihypertensives or placebo suggest that hypertension is a risk factor for developing both AD and VaD. Antihypertensives reduced risk by 55%. The results were significant as subjects had similar characteristics, the sample size was large (3228) and equally divided into placebo and treatment groups. Median follow-up was 3.9 years (Forette et al. 2002: 2047). 2.2.2. Head trauma: A meta-analysis by Fleminger et al. (2003: 858) replicated earlier findings by Mortimer et al. (1991) that head injuries pose a risk for AD but only in males, thought to be due to an early protective effect of oestrogens in females (Fleminger et al. 860). Bias may have been introduced into both studies as informants recalled the injuries. 2.2.3. Diabetes mellitus: Given that diabetes mellitus (DM) is a known risk factor for vascular disease it is not surprising that most studies on the development of vascular dementia in DM patients have shown a positive association (Biessels 2004: 10). Studies on DM as a risk factor for AD, however, have yielded conflicting results, possibly due to study limitations such as small sample sizes and selection bias (Leibson et al. 1997: 301). Large longitudinal studies may be more reliable. A population-based historical cohort study of 1,455 cases followed over 9,981 person years found a statistically significant positive association (Leibson et al. 304). According to results from the Framlingham Study, diabetes may not be an independent risk factor for developing AD but risk is strongly associated with possession of the ApoE4 genotype (Akomlafe et al. 2006: 1551). 2.2.4. Hormones: Women are twice more likely than men to suffer from AD. Although this may be partly due to women having a longer life expectancy (Beers et al. 2006: 1814) there is evidence to suggest that a decline in endogenous oestrogen in later life plays a role in its pathogenesis. Oestrogen is believed to stimulate cholinergic activity, reduce oxidative stress related cell damage, reduce vascular risks, reduce Ab formation and promote synaptic activity (Zandi et al. 2002: 2123; Hoskin et al. 2004: 141). Evidence from studies to determine whether oestrogen-containing hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in women has a protective effect on the brain, however, is conflicting (Colucci et al. 2006: 1376) but this may be due to differences in methodology and confounding factors (Resnick and Henderson 2002: 2171). For example, in one large prospective study that found a positive correlation between HRT use and a significant reduction in AD development, patients with dementia were asked q uestions regarding previous use of HRT (Zandi et al. 2124) yet accurate recall in a dementia sufferer cannot be guaranteed. Results of a retrospective case-control study suggesting the likelihood of women developing AD increases with number of pregnancies (Colucci et al. 2006: 1375) could be of little value. Cases with previous head injuries, low educational standards, both considered risk factors for AD (Collins 1997: 186; Fleminger et al. 2003: 858), and those who had used HRT, were not excluded from the study. There is evidence to suggest testosterone may delay AD onset in men. Men over 32 years of age who were free from AD at baseline (n = 574) were followed for a mean of nineteen years (Moffat et al. 2004: 188). Long-term free testosterone levels were significantly lower in men who developed AD. Due to conflicting results and confounding factors in the research the clinical evidence for risk factors for dementia is inconclusive. However, although more research is needed the results can assist in informing herbal practice. 2.3. Orthodox treatment strategies As cholinergic neurotransmitters are believed to have a role in memory function (Grossman et al. 2006: 985) symptomatic treatment for subtypes of dementia is similar and focuses on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition with drugs such as donepezil, rivastigmine and galantamine (Loveman et al. 2006: 8). According to Delagarza (2003: 1366) loss of cholinergic neurons causes a decrease in acetylcholine and subsequent drop in AChE with a compensatory rise in butylcholinesterase (BChE). Nicotinic receptors also decrease. Rivastigmine also inhibits BChE; galantamine also acts on nicotinic receptors. Depression in dementia is treated with non-anticholinergic antidepressants as anticholinergic drugs exacerbate symptoms (Beers et al. 2006: 1814). Another drug, memantine, a N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonist (Grossman et al. 987), licensed to treat moderate to severe AD, acts by modulating the action of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which is believed to be associated with c holinergic damage and neurodegeneration when secreted in excess (Loveman et al. 2006: 8). Dizziness, diarrhoea, headaches, nausea and vomiting were found by a meta-analysis of dementia drugs to be common adverse events with anti-cholinesterases and memantine (Loveman et al. 2006: 49). Furthermore, their long-term benefits are inconclusive (Loveman et al. 145). Similarly, their use for vascular or Lewy body dementia is controversial as a review of clinical trials data deems there is insufficient evidence for their efficacy. Trials were of generally poor quality and with inconsistent findings (Maggini et al. 2006: 457). Other potential drugs for AD include 70 new compounds formulated to interfere with the toxic amyloid cascade or to target inflammation, oxidation or apoptosis (Grossman et al 2006: 987). As g-aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonists can impair memory GABA antagonists are also being developed (Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry). 2.4. Potential herbal treatment strategies In view of the hypothesised pathological sequelae, risk factors and current orthodox treatment of dementias, efficacious herbs for these conditions could potentially have one or more of AChE-inhibiting or cholinergic, antidepressant, hypotensive, hypoglycaemic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, GABA modulator, nicotinic agonist, testosterogenic and oestrogenic actions. According to Kennedy and Scholey (2006: 4614) orthodox AChE inhibitors are not well tolerated by patients as they are toxic alkaloids and European plants traditionally used for cognitive enhancement may therefore provide non-alkaloid safer alternatives. To this end Salvia officinalis, Salvia lavandulaefolia and Melissa officinalis, members of the Labiatae family (Lamiaceae), have been extensively investigated in vitro. 2.4.1. Salvia spp. Salvia is the largest genus in the Labiatae family with over 700 species. The most common European species are Salvia officinalis L (garden or common sage) (Figure 1) and Salvia lavandulaefolia Vahl (Spanish sage), both of which originate on the shores of the Mediterranean (Kennedy and Scholey 2006: 4614). S. officinalis is an aromatic, evergreen shrub up to 75 cm in height with greyish-green oblong to lanceolate opposite leaves covered in a fine down. It has bluish-violet, two-lipped flowers arranged in whorls (Wildwood 1998: 202). S. lavandulaefolia has narrower leaves and a lower spreading habit (Sergei Savelevs Database). Sage was used in medieval Europe as a tisane for prolonging life and is a traditional spring tonic for strengthening weak constitutions (Lipp 1996: 63). According to Culpepper (1826: 147) ‘Sage is of excellent use to help the memory, warming and quickening the senses and an old country remedy, which indicates its efficacy for inflammation: ‘A sunburnt face is eased by washing with sage tea (Page 1978: 41). Other traditional uses are for headaches and migraine (Page: 34). The major active constituents of the leaves of both species are believed to be the volatile oils (1.0-2.8%), containing monoterpenes such as a-pinene, b-pinene, 1-8-cineole, camphor, geraniol and thujone (Kennedy and Scholey 2006: 4615). S. officinalis contains around 50% a- and b- thujone whereas only traces have been found in S. lavandulaefolia. As thujone, a terpenoid ketone, is potentially neurotoxic, S. lavandulaefolia may provide a safer alternative than S. officinalis to orthodox dementia drugs (Perry et al. 1999: 530). However, S. officinalis is toxic only at doses of over 15 g (Grainger-Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 441) but the oil should not be ingested. Both species contain polyphenolic compounds including rosmarinic acid, methyl carnosate, luteolin, luteolin-7-0-glucoside and caffeic acid (Kennedy and Scholey 4615), triterpenes eg oleanic acid and the flavonoids 5-Methoxysalvagenin (Barnes et al. 2002: 408) and hispidulin (Johnston and Beart 2004: 809). 2.4.2. Melissa officinalis M. officinalis L (balm, lemon balm) (Figure 2) originates from the eastern Mediterranean region and western Asia and is now widely cultivated in the west (Grainger Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 329). It is a bushy perennial, about 60 cm high with bright green, lemon-scented leaves in opposite pairs. Small labiate flowers grow in whorls and change colour from pale yellow to white or pale blue. Fresh leaves should be collected when young (Wildwood 1998: 175). It has been in medicinal use as a nervous system restorative for over 2000 years (Kennedy and Scholey 2006: 4617). The London Dispensary (1696 cited in Grieve 1931) states: ‘An essence of Balm, given in Canary wine every morning will renew youth, strengthen the brain John Evelyn wrote: ‘Balm is sovereign for the brain, strengthening the memory and powerfully chasing away melancholy (cited in Grieve 1931). There are no known contraindications or adverse effects (Barnes et al. 2002: 339). M. officinalis contains 0.2-0.3% essential oil (EO) consisting of over 70 components including around 60% monoterpenoid aldehydes and over 35% sesquiterpenes. The principle monoterpenes include citronellol, neral, geranial, methyl citronellate, ocimene; major sesquiterpenes include b-caryophylene and germacrene D. The herb also contains flavonoids, caffeic and chlorogenic glycosides, polyphenolic acids such as rosmarinic acid, and triterpenes (Granger Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 330). 2.5. Possible mode of action of phytochemical constituents in dementia 2.5.1. Antioxidant properties Numerous studies have been conducted on Salvia officinalis in a search for natural antioxidants to use in the food industry. Consequently, results of chemical tests on purified extracts of the herb have suggested that phenolic compounds rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid, carnosol, carnosoic acid, rosmadiol, rosmanol, epirosmanol, isorosmanol, galdosol methyl carnosate, 9-erythrosmanol and luteolin-7-0-glucopyranoside have significant antioxidant activity (Bertelsen et al 1995: 1272; Cuvelier et al. 1994: 665; Pizzale et al. 2002: 1651; Miura et al. 2002: 1848; Wang et al. 1998: 4869). S. lavandulaefolia dried leaf extracts in ethanol, chloroform and water, and various EO monoterpenes were assayed for antioxidant properties in phospholipid microsomes. The extracts and monoterpenes a-pinene, b-pinene, 1-8-cineole, camphor and geraniol and thujone all showed significant antioxidant activity (Perry et al. 2001: 1351). The extracts showed greater antioxidant activity than any individual monoterpenes, which suggested a synergistic effect (Perry et al. 1352). Ferreira et al. (2006: 35) measured the antioxidant properties of EOs, decoctions and ethanolic extracts of M. officinalis and S. officinalis relative to b-carotene. The EO and decoctions of both herbs showed significant antioxidant activity. Lima et al (2007) found methanolic and aqueous extracts of S. officinalis prevented lipid peroxidation in hepatoma cells. As there were more phenolics in the methanol extract it was thought there were other antioxidant compounds in the aqueous extract. Ethanolic EO extract from dried M. officinalis investigated for its ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation in vitro showed a dose-dependent (10-20 mg) 80-90% protection of linoleic acid from peroxyl radical attack. As no rosmarinic acid was detected in the EO the antioxidant action was attributed to squalene (Marongiu et al. 2004: 790). Considering there are potentially 70 constituents in the EO it is unlikely that this would have been the only active phytochemical but composition of the oil varies according to harvesting, origin and climate (Grainger-Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 329). Interestingly, M. officinalis prepared as a tea demonstrated significant antioxidant capacity, which corresponded to high phenolic content, when assayed with the ABTS (2,2/-azinobis 3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical decolourisation assay (Ivanova et al. 2005: 147). 2.5.2. Anti-inflammatory activity Chloroform, aqueous and ethanol extracts and monoterpenes of S. lavandulaefolia, were tested for their ability to inhibit formation of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids thromboxane B2 (TXB2) and leukotriene B4 (LTB4) in leucocytes (Perry et al. 2001: 1348). The chloroform and ethanol extracts showed significant inhibition of LTB4. Alpha-pinene and geraniol showed weak selectivity for LTB4 and TXB2 respectively (Perry et al. 1351). The results support the traditional use of S. lavandulaefolia as an anti-inflammatory herb but indicate that it is the sum of the whole plant phytochemicals acting in synergy that are likely to contribute to this action. A standardised ethanolic extract containing 9.9% rosmarinic acid (RA) from the leaves of S. officinalis reduced Ab-induced neuronal cell death, Ab-induced lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species formation, DNA fragmentation and tau protein hyperphosphorylation in vitro (Iuvone et al. 2006: 1143). Kimura et al (1987) found rosmarinic acid (RA) had the ability to inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines in human polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMNs) in vitro. As both species contain RA these results suggest antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties of M. officinalis and the Salvia spp. against Ab-induced neurotoxicity. 2.5.3. Oestrogenic activity A range of concentrations of EO, ethanolic, chloroform and aqueous extracts and isolated monoterpenes of S. lavandulaefolia were assayed in yeast culture for oestrogen-binding properties. The EO showed weak oestrogenic activity at low concentrations. The aqueous and ethanolic fractions and geraniol showed significant oestrogenic activity (Perry et al. 2001: 1352). The results of this experiment support S. lavandulaefolias use as an oestrogenic herb. The effects of S. officinalis in combination with Medicago sativa were assessed on menopausal symptoms related to oestrogen deprivation. Hot flushes and night sweats were completely eliminated in 20 out of 30 women (De Leo et al. 1998: 207). These effects were attributed to dopaminergic actions but it is not clear for which herb. S. officinalis does, however, contain geraniol found to be oestrogenic in vitro (Perry et al. 2001: 1352). 2.5.4. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity M. officinalis EO demonstrated strong AChE inhibition in homogenised human brain tissue but ethanolic extract of the dried leaf had no effect. Ethanolic fresh leaf extract showed a weak effect (Perry et al. 1996: 1064). Conversely, when EOs and ethanolic extracts of M. officinalis were assayed in solution with AChE negligible results were obtained for its inhibition by EO and significant results for its ethanolic extract (Ferreira et al. 2006: 34). Dried, reconstituted ethanolic, ethyl acetate or aqueous extracts of M. officinalis, yielding 10mg/ml, demonstrated weak AChE inhibitory activity when assayed in a chemical system using thin layer chromatography (Salah and Jà ¤ger 2005: 146). The herbs were purchased from local suppliers in the Lebanon so their quality is unknown. S. officinalis EO and ethanolic extract assayed in solution with AChE showed moderate AChE inhibitory activity (Ferreira et al. 2006: 34). Moderate (dose-dependent) AChE and weak BChE inhibition was demonstrated by ethanolic extracts of fresh and dried S. officinalis and S. lavandulaefolia in human brain homogenates. The EOs had significant effects but not the individual constituents (camphor, thujone, cineole, caffeic acid and borneol) (Perry et al. 1996: 1066). The findings suggest a major synergistic effect of the constituents (Perry et al. 2000: 895), which was later confirmed by Savelev et al. (2003: 667). The results for camphor conflict with another experiment in which S. lavandulaefolia EO and isolated monoterpenes a-pinene, 1-8-cineole and camphor demonstrated AChE inhibitory activity in human erythrocytes. Ethanolic extracts of dried S. officinalis, S. lavandulaefolia and M. officinalis were assayed for acetylcholine (ACh) receptor activity in human brain homogenate. All plants demonstrated ACh receptor activity and M. officinalis had the highest nicotinic displacement value (Wake et al. 2000: 108). 2.5.5. GABA modulation Methanol extract from S officinalis leaves revealed the flavonoids apigenin, hispidulin and cirsimaritin functioning as benzodiazepine receptor-active components (Kavvadias et al. 2003: 113), suggesting a potential calming effect for the herb, which may be relevant to AD. 2.6. Evaluation of in vitro studies According to the results all three herbs may have AChE inhibitory, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and S. lavandulaefolia and S. officinalis may have and oestrogenic properties (Appendix I, Table 1, page 36) and a sedative effect for S. officinalis. Although these results are interesting in vitro systems cannot be extrapolated to humans and clinical evidence is necessary to support findings. For example, they cannot determine effective human dosage or mode of administration. They largely do not account for potential synergistic effects of the herbs nor do they provide an indication of in vivo physiological, pathological and genetic, or environmental, influences. Furthermore, the extent to which phytochemicals in herbs are effective in dementia may depend upon their bioavailability in the brain (Anekonda and Reddy 2005: 371). It is worth noting, however, that as terpenoids tend to be lipophilic they are able to cross the blood brain barrier (Houghton and Howes 2005: 12). Some results are conflicting but they may depend on methodological quality and design. The experiments cited above vary widely in their approach with regard to extraction methods and assay methods. Savelev (2003: 667) has demonstrated how two different methods used for exploring interactions between the same agents may give different results when applied to the same set of data. Consistency of results may also be affected by differences in harvesting times and quality of herbs. Results for M. officinalis are particularly inconsistent but, according to Perry et al. (1996: 1068) most commercial sources of the EO are adulterated. Additionally, variation in media composition is known to affect the outcome of in vitro tests (Maurer and Kuschinsky 2006: 73). Consequently, in vitro experiments can only provide an indication of the clinical efficacy of therapeutic interventions. However, despite the inherent difficulties of in vitro research with herbs, there is considerable consistency with their potential value in dementia prophylaxis and management (Appendix I, Table I, page 36). Promising results in vitro of constituents of plants traditionally used to enhance memory, and subsequent interest in their potential actions in the brains of human patients, has generated clinical trials of M. officinalis and Salvia spp. for dementia. These will be reviewed. 3. Method A computerised literature search was conducted on the Allied and Complementary Medicine Database (AMED) including CINAHL Database, EMBASE, Pascal Biomed, Biological Abstracts, RCN Journals Database and IPA (International Pharmaceutical Abstracts); PubMed, the Cochrane Collaboration, Bandolier, the NHS Centre for Reviews, The National Research Register, ADEAR (Alzheimers Disease Education and Referral Centre database), PLoS (Public Library of Science), Herbalgram and Alt HealthWatch as well as hand-searching in books and journals. Literature searches dated back to 1985 and the final search was in April 2007. Key words in medical subject headings (MeSH) for an initial search in various Boolean combinations were: memory, cognitive dysfunction, dementia, Alzheimers, herbal, botanicals, phytotherapy, complementary and alternative. Also, in a second search these MeSh terms were entered with key herbs: Salvia, sage, Melissa and lemon balm. Inclusion criteria Controlled clinical trials, observational studies and case reports. Herbs for which there are at least two clinical studies in relation to cognitive enhancement. Exclusion criteria Due to the limitations and ethical considerations of animal experiments the review is restricted to human trials. Trials with combined preparations are excluded. Due to time constraints and a restriction to papers in the English language a complete systematic review is not viable at this time. To eliminate

Free College Essays - Sleep in Shakespeares Sonnet XXVII :: free essay writer

Motif of Sleep in Shakespeare's Sonnet XXVII    In William Shakespeare’s â€Å"Sonnet 27†, a motif that can be followed throughout the poem is that of sleep and weariness. This motif is used to reinforce the theme of the entire sonnet: that the speaker cannot sleep due to thoughts of his lover. The speaker’s diction supports the theme of work and toil. Words like â€Å"zealous†, â€Å"drooping†, â€Å"repose†, â€Å"haste†, and â€Å"expired† illustrate the weariness that the speaker is feeling, and help to give significance to the fact that he can not sleep. Although the speaker is so very tired, â€Å"... my thoughts, from far where I abide, intend a zealous pilgrimage to thee ...,† when the speaker describes the thought of his lover as one that â€Å"Makes black night beauteous and her old face new,† the reader knows that the weariness of the speaker is not aggravated by these thoughts, they are positive. â€Å".. . By day my limbs, by night my mind, for thee and for myself no quiet find.† This line is a summation of the problems faced by the speaker. From working hard all day long to only be faced with thoughts of his lover at night is torturous, and the reader can’t help but get a feeling that the speaker is obsessed. This sonnet is so unique due to the fact that it is a simple love poem made so subtle due to a lack of mention of the actual lover. The words â€Å"thee† and â€Å"thy† appear only three times in the poem. Shakespeare has once again captured a feeling so overused in poems and stories in a fresh and original way that wins over audiences to this day. Sonnet XXVII 1.....Weary with toil, I haste me to my bed, 2.....The dear repose for limbs with travel tired; 3.....But then begins a journey in my head, 4.....To work my mind, when body's work's expired:

The Influence of Noam Chomsky in Child Language Acquisition

The influence of Noam Chomsky in child language acquisition Noam Chomsky dominated the world of linguistics like a colossus for decades after the late fifties. My main aim of this essay is to discuss his influence in the area of child language acquisition and inspect to see if his influence is waxing or waning. After that I will examine the reasons behind the increase or decrease of his influence. I will be relating back every so often to nativism and the great ‘nature vs. nurture’ debate since Chomsky’s reputation significantly depends on it. Avram Noam Chomsky was born in 1928 and is, as reported by the online Encyclopaedia , â€Å"an Institute Professor Emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and also is the creator of the Chomsky hierarchy, a classification of formal languages. † Apart from his linguistic work, Chomsky is also famous for his political views. Although, the field of children's language development includes a whole range of perspectives , the issue that has outweighed the rest is that of whether language ability is ‘innate’ or not. This matter which has been long debated concentrates on finding out whether children were born ‘preprogrammed’ to acquire language or is it merely a matter of cultural product . One of the most influential figures around this debate was Noam Chomsky, who believed in the innate capacity of children for learning language. As Harris (1990:76) explains, â€Å"Chomsky suggested that infants are born with innate knowledge of the properties of language. Further elaborating on Chomskys’s belief, Sampson (1997:23) says â€Å"Chomsky claims that this process of first language acquisition must be determined in most respects by a genetic programme, so that the development of language in an individuals mind is akin to the growth of a bodily organ rather than being a matter of responding to environmental stimulation. † Noam Chomsky suggested that children are born with a genetic mechanism for the acquisition of language, which he called a â€Å"Language Acquisition Dev ice† (LAD). He claimed that they are born with the major principles of language in place, but with many parameters to set. Further supporting this claim Chomsky (1972:113) said â€Å"Having some knowledge of the characteristics of the acquired grammars and the limitations on the available data, we can formulate quite reasonable and fairly strong empirical hypotheses regarding the internal structure of the LAD that constructs the postulated grammars from the given data. † Nevertheless, this theory of an innate Language Acquisition Device has not been generally accepted but in fact has been opposed on two grounds. Firstly, in the famous ongoing debate between nature and nurture many people have criticised Chomsky for disregarding environmental aspects. Secondly, there is a difference of opinion as to whether language acquisition is part of the child’s wider cognitive development or as Chomsky believes, is an independent inborn ability. Disagreements such as these display the immense impact Chomsky’s theory has had on the field of linguistics. One of the central concepts which Chomsky introduced was the idea of Universal Grammar. Chomsky greatly influenced Linguistic thinking by his theory that a universal grammar inspires all languages and that all languages have the same basic underlying structure. Collis et al (1994:11) further clarify â€Å"Chomsky argued that universals of linguistic form are innate: the child had inborn knowledge of the general form of a transformational grammar. † He believed in Universal Grammar because children remarkably seem to be able to learn rapidly whatever language they are exposed to despite certain rules of grammar being beyond their learning capacity and in a couple of years they seem to master the system they are immersed in . Harris (1990:76) supporting this view says: â€Å"After a period of some four to five years’ exposure to the language of those around them, children seem to have mastered the underlying rule system which enables them to produce an infinite variety of relatively well-formed, complex sentences. † Also children progress so rapidly in acquiring their native language as though they know in advance the general form of the system to be acquired as Fromkin & Rodman (1998:339) state, â€Å"The similarity of the language acquisition stages across diverse peoples and languages shows that children are equipped with special abilities to acquire. Wilkipedia explaining this theory says: â€Å"it does not claim that all human languages have the same grammar, or that all humans are â€Å"programmed† with a structure that underlies all surface expressions of human language; but rather, universal grammar proposes a set of rules that would explain how children acquire their langua ge(s), or how they construct valid sentences of their language. † Although, Sampson (1997:108) gives the arguments in support of language universals some credit saying â€Å"the arguments from universals is the only one hat has some serious prima facie force† But, by and large, Sampson (1997:136) disagrees as he concludes: â€Å"there are some universal features in human languages, but what they mainly show is that human beings have to learn their mother tongues rather than having knowledge of language innate in their minds. † Another argument, involving Chomsky, which is referred to as Poverty of data, is that children would be unable to learn language in a human environment where the input is of poor quality. Chomsky (1980) argued that the child’s acquisition of grammar is ‘hopelessly underdetermined by the fragmentary evidence available. He recognized this deficiency due to two major reasons. The first is the poor nature of the input. According to Chomsky, the sentences heard by the child are so full of errors and incompletions that they provide no clear indication of the possible sentences of the language. As well as this problem there is an unavailability of negative evidence and children have a hard time knowing which forms of their language are acceptable and which are unacceptable. As a result of all this, he believes language learning must rely on other constraints from universal grammar. Macwhinney (2004) says: â€Å"To solve this logical problem, theorists have proposed a series of constraints and parameterizations on the form of universal grammar. Plausible alternatives to these constraints include: conservatism, item-based learning, indirect negative evidence, competition, cue construction, and monitoring. † According to Macwhinney (2004) Chomsky’s views about the poor quality of the input have not stood up well to the test of time. Many studies of child directed speech have shown that speech to young children is slow, clear, grammatical, and very repetitious. Newport, Gleitman & Gleitman (1977) reported, ‘the speech of mothers to children is unswervingly well-formed. ’ More recently, Sagae et al (2004) examined several of the corpora in the CHILDES database and found that adult input to children can be parsed with an accuracy level parallel to that for corpora. Although, this failure of Chomsky’s claim has not so far led to the collapse of the ‘argument from poverty of stimulus’, however, as Macwhinney (2004) says, â€Å"It has placed increased weight on the remaining claims regarding the absence of relevant evidence. The overall claim as Macwhinney (2004) points out is that, â€Å"given the absence of appropriate positive and negative evidence, no child can acquire language without guidance from a rich set of species-specific innate hypotheses. † Chomsky also claimed that there was a critical period for language learning which was first proposed by Eric Lenneberg. He claimed, as Cook & Newson (199 6:301) explain, that there is a critical period during which the human mind is able to learn language; before or after this period language cannot be acquired in a natural fashion. Although the rare cases of feral children who had been deprived of first language in early childhood seems to support the idea of critical period but it is not known for definite if deprivation was the only reason for their language learning difficulties as Sampson (1997:37) points out, â€Å"it is not certain if children in cases of extreme deprivation have trouble learning language because they have missed their so-called â€Å"critical period† or if it is because of the extreme trauma they have experienced. Although Chomsky was a very influential and successful nativist, Sampson (1997:159) claims ‘his theories were given a helping hand by external circumstances. ’ At the time when he was putting forward these ideas about language and human nature, Chomsky was also the leading intellectual opponent of American involvement in the Vietnam War as Sampson (1997:11) states: â€Å"politics had given Chomsky much of his audience in the early days as he was the leadin g intellectual figure in the 1960’s movement against American involvement in the Vietnam War. His opposition to the Vietnam War made him a popular figure amongst the young Americans who also opposed the decision and were eager to cheer on anyone speaking against it. Sampson (1997:11) also points out importantly â€Å"Many people came to listen to Chomsky on foreign policy and stayed to listen to him on linguistics. Giving other reasons Sampson (1997:159) claims that â€Å"it was a period when the academic discipline of linguistics found a new market in providing professional training for teachers of foreign language and this nativist style of language analysis was relatively appealing to them as nativism focused on language universals rather than on the peculiar individual features of particular languages. Similarly he points out that â€Å"it was a period when knowledge of other languages among the English speaking world was diminishing. † Furthermore, the years aro und 1970 were also a period when the university system expanded massively in a very short eriod. Large numbers of people were taken on into the university teaching profession over a few years, and after entering they remained there as Sampson (1997:159) says, â€Å"they stayed; so an over-presentation of whatever intellectual trends happened to be ‘hot’ just then was locked into the system. † Stating another reason Sampson (1997:161) claims: â€Å"American linguists who were not established in their careers were afraid to voice disagreement with nativism publicly for fear of damaging their chances of academic employment. The most important point keeping the nativist domination is the greater job availability as Sampson (1997:161) points out, â€Å"there are more jobs in nativism than empiricism† During the 1980s, Chomsky’s nativist discourse moved out of the public limelight as his political interference became less agreeable to many and so Chomsky ’s influence started to diminish in significance to linguistic nativism as Sampson (1997:11) says â€Å"In the 1980’s Chomsky’s star waned† and then reasoning the 1980’s eclipse he says that ‘those were the Margaret Thatcher years, which meant that educated public opinion had other things to be interested in. But, beginning in the 1990s, a new wave of writing has revived basically the same idea about language and knowledge being innate in human beings and they rely on Chomsky’s ideas as Sampson (1997:14) says, â€Å"Many of the nativists work of the 1990’s depend on chomsky’s version of nativism. However, these books seem to better equipped to the test of time as Sampson (2003) points out â€Å"These books refer to a broader range of considerations, including issues high in human interest such as case studies of pidgin languages, young children’s speech, experiments in teaching language to apes whereas Chomskyâ⠂¬â„¢s arguments were rather dryly formal and mathematical. † Furthermore, the contemporary nativists claim to identify some additional evidence which was never mentioned by Chomsky. Several different writers have contributed to this â€Å"new wave† of present-day arguments for nativism. By far the most influential, however, as Sampson (2003) suggests, has been Steven Pinker’s 1994 book The Language Instinct. Regarding this new revival Sampson (1997:12) says: â€Å"The nativists of the 1990’s are quite different. Their books are full of fascinating information about languages and linguistic behaviour so that people enjoy reading for the data alone. He further states: â€Å"As a result, the new generation of linguistic nativists have succeeded very quickly in winning audiences and attracting praise from distinguished and sometimes influential onlookers. † Criticising the content of these books he says: â€Å"The reader is taken on a magical mystery tour of language and urged to agree that nativism makes a plausible account of it all- rather than herded through a bare corral in which every side exit is sealed off by barriers of logic a nd the only way out is the gate labelled ‘innate knowledge. In conclusion, it is very obvious to see the great impact Chomsky’s ideologies have had in the area of child language acquisition which subsequently enhanced his status. Describing his huge influence Sampson (1997:10) says, â€Å"It would be hard to exaggerate the impact that these ideas of Noam Chomsky’s achieved. † He further states â€Å"By many objective measures, he became the world’s most influential living thinker. Sampson (1997:11) further reports that, â€Å"in the comprehensive computerized registers of references that scholars make to one another’s writings in the academic literature; within the sphere covered by the Arts and Humanities Citation Index, Chomsky is the most- quoted living writer, and the eighth most quoted in history. † Although his ideas suffered a blow in the 1980’s, it has been strongly revived since the 1990’s as Sampson (1997:161) critically states â€Å"in the 1990’s the public mood has changed again. Society is showing signs of reverting to an almost medieval acceptance of intellectual authority, from which dissent is seen as morally objectionable† Further, reasoning the success of these new nativist writers he says â€Å"When Chomsky originally spelled out an argument, the reader would assess it and might detect its fallacies; but when recent writers refer to something as having been established back in the 1960s–70s, most readers are likely to take this on trust, for lack of time and energy to check the sources. Finally, on the subject of ‘nature vs. nurture’ debate, which so heavily involves Chomsky, it seems impossible to distinguish whether language is only acquired due to environmental exposure or simply due to innate faculties. From the evidence it seems that humans possess innate capabilities which enable linguistic development, but the correct environment, with exposure to adult language throughout the critical period, also seems to be necessar y in order for a child to develop and become a proficient speaker. In regards to this issue Collis (1994:10) makes a valid conclusion â€Å"current thinking about language acquisition treats nativist and empiricist explanations as forthrightly opposed, but as potentially varying in degree: language acquisition is mostly a realisation of innate principles, or mostly a consequence of learning. † Similarly, Sampson (2003) clarifies: â€Å"Clearly this issue is not an all-or-nothing question. It is about where truth lies on a spectrum of possibilities. Nature must have some role in human cognition; conversely, nurture must also play a role. † Bibliography Chomsky, N. (1972) Language and Mind New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Chomsky, N. (1980). Rules and representations. New York: Columbia University Press Chomsky, N. (1986) Knowledge of language: it's nature, origin and use. New York: Praeger Cook, V. J, & Newson, M. (1996) Chomsky’s Universal Grammar : An Introduction(2nd ed. ) UK:Blackwell Publishers Collis, G. , Perera, K, & Richards, B (1994) (Eds. ), Growing points in child language UK: CUP Fromkin, V. and Rodman, R. (1998) An Introduction to Language. 6th. ed. US: Harcourt Brace College Publishers Harris, J (1990) Early Language Development- implications for clinical and educational practice London:Routledge Macwhinney, B(2004) ‘A multiple process solution to the logical problem of language acquisition’ Journal of Child Language. Vol. 31 No. 4, pp. 883–914 UK:CUP Newport, E. , Gleitman, H. & Gleitman, L. (1977). Mother, I? d rather do it myself: some effects and non-effects of maternal speech style. In C. Ferguson (ed. ), Talking to children :language input and acquisition. Cambridge: CUP Sagae, K. , MacWhinney, B. & Lavie, A. (2004). Automatic parsing of parent–child interactions. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers 36, 113–26. Sampson,G (2005) The ‘Language Instinct' Debate: Revised Edition of Educating Eve Continuum International Publishing Group Sampson, G (2003) Empiricism v. Nativism [http://www. grsampson. net/REmpNat. html](07/05/05) Sampson,G (1997) The ‘Language Instinct' Debate: Educating Eve London and New York: Cassell Wikipedia (2005) The Free Encyclopedia – Noam Chomsky [http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky] (07/05/05) Wikipedia (2005) The Free Encyclopedia- Universal grammar [http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Universal_Grammar] (07/05/05)